Exploring The Chemistry Of Textiles Chemistry Essay

Exploring The Chemistry Of stuffs Chemistry EssayTextile chemistry is origin exclusivelyy an applied human body of chemistry. It is a steeply specialized field that applies the principles of the gutteronic fields of chemistry to the correspondence of stuff materials and to their functional and esthetic revision into useful and desirable items. Textile materials be apply in robes, carpet, wipe out narration, sewing thread, and air bags.Some framework chemists ar less point toward manufacturing cropes and to a greater extent foc utilize toward t light uprical role technologies.The study of stuff chemistry begins with the acquaintance of references themselves-both instinctive and synthetic. Because synthetic fibers atomic number 18 such(prenominal) an important part of todays stuff business, the field accepts m some(prenominal) who be trained as polymer chemists.The interaction in the midst of textile chemistry and materials science is in addition incre asing. Textile chemistry includes the exercise of the principles of surface chemistry to cleaning soures and modifications such as dye and finishing. It relates innate chemistry in the synthesis and formulation of the products utilise in these puzzle outes.2. is slashingTradition everyy, textile chemists cave in been trained to have an in-depth chthonicstanding of the structure and properties of subjective and synthetic fibers, says Norman Nemerov, professor of chemistry at the Philadelphia College of Textiles and Sciences. They have withal been taught the post-treatment chemistries, which impart properties such as dye ability, wash freshness, and permanent press. besides today there are new demands, such as recyclability. unmatched thing were looking at is how to make fibers degradable over clock, he says. And, in a coitusly new area c bothed biotextiles, fibers are being true for drug deliin truth systems, Nemorov adds. twist, dyeing, and finishing cloth is an ancie nt art, but its excessively a modern science, says Fred milling machine, vice president of Hickory Dyeing and weave Comp all. Jim Hammond, a senior research associate in nylon research and festering at Dupont, comments, I often say that if I took a biennial trip around the world, my knowledge would be obsolete by the time I came back. Miller said, The field is exciting because theres still so such(prenominal) to know and to learn. After many years in the business, both Hammond and Miller still find their work productive and intellectually challenging.3. Brings older engineering up to dateWhile new technology abounds, the most comm only utilize fibers have been around for a long time. But, chemists working with these materials are often foc apply on modifying them for new applications.Sushma Kitchloo, a polymer chemist at Globe Manufacturing, is responsible for new product development and troubleshoots problems associated with modification of polymersMillers expertise is in the interaction between fibers and the dyes that give them color and luster. Modifying traditional polymers requires adjusting the chemical processes for downstream functions, such as dyeing the fiber.4. is tangibleIn textiles, you are working with something you can hold and feel. says Ehrhardt. The skill set for this field includes on a lower floorstanding process manufacturing, being familiar with physical testing of fibers, having knowledge of twist and knitting, and understanding the evolution of a product through garment form.Specializing in the field of textile chemistry can provide opportunities for dynamic and creative applications of chemistry. A textile chemist relates knowledge of the organic structures of both fibers and the chemicals employ to modify them to specific chemical, physical, and esthetic properties.The combination of the theoretical and the practical makes realizable the development of the thousands of textile chemicals necessary for the business of t he absolute articles of commerce.Textile- Textile is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or dummy separate often referred to as thread or yarn.Yarn is produced by spinning naked sheepskinlenlen character references, linen, cotton, or a nonher(prenominal) material on a spinning wheel to produce long strands know as yarn. Textiles are make by weaving, knitting, crocheting, k nonting, or pressing parts together .The rowing framework and cloth are used in textile fiction trades (such as tailoring and dressmaking) as synonyms for textile. However, there are subtle differences in these terms.Textile refers to any material make of interlacing references.Fabric refers to any material made through weaving, knitting, crocheting, or bonding.Cloth refers to a finished piece of textile that can be used for a aspire such as covering a bed.Textile Chemistry nomenclaturePerformance fabrics offer special benefits to consumers, such as stain-repellency, wrinkle-resi stance, or odor-control. saucy technologies are launched every year. CCRC is committed to keeping ahead of the technology curve, insure that consumers will be satisfied with the home care of the fabrics, as sound as performance.Antimicrobial Agent (AM) A chemical compound any destroys or inhibits the growth of microscopic and submicroscopic organisms.Flame loathly (FR) The characteristic of a fabric to resist ignition and to self extinguish if ignited.Flammability The ability of a material or product to burn with a flame under specified test conditions.Hydrophilic Water loving having a high degree of moisture absorption or attraction.Hydrophobic Water skanky having a low degree of moisture absorption or attraction.resilience Ability of a fabric to return to its cowcatcher shape subsequently compressing, bending or new(prenominal) deformation.Reusable Protective article of fit out Garments which are capable of withstanding a maintenance procedure to remove s rock oi l and other contaminants yet retain the garments tutelary characteristic.Stoll Curve Developed by Alice Stoll in 1960s it is used in many tests to predict the thermic preservative performance of textile materials for FR apparel. It is essentially a plot of thermal energy and time predicted to cause a pain sensation, or a second degree burn, in human tissue.Waterproof Ability of a fabric to be fully repelling to penetration by water. warning rain coat.HistoryLate antique textile, Egyptian, now in the Dumbarton Oaks collection.The payoff of textiles is an important craft, whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques. However, for the main typesetters cases of textiles, sphere weave, twill or satin weave, there is little difference between the ancient and modern methods.Incans have been crafting quipus (or khipus) made of characters either from a protein, such as sp un and plied thread the likes of wool or hairs-breadth from camelids such as alpacas, llamas and camels or from a cellulose like cotton for thousands of years. Khipus are a series of knots along pieces of string. They have been believed to only have acted as a form of accounting, although new evidence conducted by Harvard professor, Gary Urton, indicates there may be more to the khipu than just numbers.Preservation of khipus found in museum and archive collections follow commonplace textile preservation principles and practice.Metal character reference, surface foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewelry. ironware cloth is a grainy weave of steel wire, used in construction.Sources and typesTraditional Romanian fabricTextiles can be made from many materials. These materials come from four main sources tool,plant,mineral, andsynthetic.In the past, all textiles were made from natural fibres, including plant, animal, and min eral sources.In the 20th century, these were supplemented by artificial fibres made from petroleum.Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of durability, from the finest gossamer to the sturdiest canvas. The relative thickness of fibres in cloth is measured in deniers. Microfibre refers to fibres made of strands tenuous than one denier.Animal textilesAnimal textiles are commonly made from hair or fur. sheepskin refers to the hair of the domestic goat or sheep, which is gilded from other types of animal hair in that the individual strands are surface with scales and tightly crimped, and the wool as a whole is coated with an oil known as lanolin, which is waterproof and dirtproof. Woollen refers to a bulkier yarn produced from carded, non-parallel fibre, objet dart worsted refers to a finer yarn which is spun from longer fibres which have been straighten out to be parallel. Wool is commonly used for loosen up clothing.Cashmere, the hair of the Indian cashmere goat, an d mohair, the hair of the North African angora goat, are types of wool known for their softness.Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbitOther animal textiles which are made from hair or fur are alpaca wool, vicua wool, llama wool, and camel hair, generally used in the production of coats, jackets, ponchos, blankets, and other warm coverings.Angora refers to the long, thick, soft hair of the angora rabbit.Wadmal is a coarse cloth made of wool, produced in Scandinavia, mostly 10001 calciferolCE.Silk is an animal textile made from the fibres of the cocoon of the Chinese silkworm. This is spun into a smooth, shiny fabric prized for its sleek texture.SilkSilk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles.The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons made by the larvae of the silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity (sericulture).The shimmering air for which silk is prized comes from the fibres triangular prism-like structure wh ich allows silk cloth to refract incoming light at diametrical angles.Silk is also the strongest natural fiber known to man.The length of the silk fiber depends on how it has been prepared. Since the cocoon is made of one strand, if the cocoon is unwound carefully the fibers can be very long.WoolWool is the fiber derived from the fur of animals of the Caprinae family, principally sheep, but the hair of certain species of other mammals such as goats, alpacas, and rabbits may also be called wool.AlpacaAlpaca fiber is that of an alpaca.It is warmer than sheeps wool and lighter in weight.It is soft, fine, glossy, and luxurious.The thickness of quality fiber is between 12-29 micrometres. roughly alpaca fiber is white, but it also comes in various dark glasses of brown and black.AngoraAngora wool or Angora fiber refers to the downy coat produced by the Angora rabbit.Angora is prized for its softness, thin fibers of around 12-16 micrometres for quality fiber, and what knitters refer to as a halo (fluffiness). The fiber matte ups very easily.Angora fiber comes in white, black, and various shades of brown.CashmereCashmere wool is wool obtained from the Cashmere goat.Cashmere is characterized by its luxuriously soft fibers, with high napability and loft. In order for a natural goat fiber to be considered Cashmere, it must be under 18.5 micrometers in diam and be at least 3.175 centimeters long.It is noted as providing a natural light-weight insulation without bulk.Fibers are highly adaptable and are easily constructed into fine or thick yarns, and light to heavy-weight fabrics.Sheeps woolWool has two qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur it has scales which overlap like shingles on a roof and it is crimped in some fleeces the wool fibers have more than 20 bends per inch. Wool varies in diameter from below 17 micrometres to over 35 micrometresThe finer the wool, the softer it will be, mend coarser grades are more durable and less prone to pilling.Plant tex tilesGrass, rush, hemp, and sisal hemp are all used in making rope. In the freshman two, the entire plant is used for this purpose, trance in the last two, only fibres from the plant are utilized.Coir (coconut fibre) is used in making twine, and also in floormats, doormats, brushes, mattresses, floor tiles, and sacking.Straw and bamboo are both used to make hats. Straw, a dried form of grass, is also used for stuffing, as is kapok.Fibres from pulpwood trees, cotton, rice, hemp, and nettle are used in making paper. cotton plant, flax, jute, hemp and modal are all used in clothing. Pia (pineapple fibre) and ramie are also fibres used in clothing, generally with a blend of other fabrics such as cotton.Acetate is used to increase the shininess of certain fabrics such as silks, velvets, and taffetas.Seaweed is used in the production of textiles. A water-soluble fibre known as alginate is produced and is used as a holding fibre when the cloth is finished, the alginate is dissolved, leav ing an open areaTencel is a man-made fabric derived from wood pulp. It is often described as a man-made silk akin and is a tough fabric which is often blended with other fabrics cotton for example.Mineral textilesor vinyl tiles, sheeting, and adhesives, transite panels and siding, acoustical ceilings, stage curtains, and give notice blankets. scum Fibre is used in the production of placesuits, ironing board and mattress covers, ropes and cables, reinforcing stimulus fibre for composite materials, insect netting, flame-retardant and protective fabric, soundproof, fireproof, and insulating fibres.Metal fibre, metal foil, and metal wire have a variety of uses, including the production of cloth-of-gold and jewelry. Hardware cloth is a coarse weave of steel wire, used in construction. unreal textilesA variety of contemporary fabrics. From the left evenweave cotton, velvet, printed cotton, calico, felt, satin, silk, hessian, polycotton.All synthetic textiles are used primarily in th e production of clothing.Polyester fibre is used in all types of clothing, either alone or blended with fibres such as cotton.Aramid fibre (e.g. Twaron) is used for flame-retardant clothing, cut-protection, and armor.Acrylic is a fibre used to imitate wools, including cashmere, and is often used in replacement of them.Nylon is a fibre used to imitate silk it is used in the production of pantyhose. Thicker nylon fibres are used in rope and outdoor clothing.Nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acid, so that peptide bonds form at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptide biopolymers. Chemical elements included are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. .The most common form is nylon 6-6 which refers to the fact that the diamine (hexamethylene diamine) and the diacid (adipic acid) each donate 6 carbons to the polymer chain.Spandex (trade name Lycra) is a polyurethane fibre that adulteratees easily and can be made tight-fitting without impeding movement. It is used to make activewear, bras, and swimsuits.Olefin fibre is a fibre used in activewear, linings, and warm clothing. Olefins are hydrophobic, allowing them to dry quickly. A sintered felt of olefin fibres is sold under the trade name Tyvek.Ingeo is a polylactide fibre blended with other fibres such as cotton and used in clothing. It is more hydrophilic than most other synthetics, allowing it to wick away effortThe most common types of microfibers are made from polyesters, polyamides (nylon), and or a co-occurrence of polyester and polyamide.The shape, size and combinations of synthetic fibers are selected for specific characteristics, including softness, durability, absorption, wicking abilities, water repellency, electrodynamics, and filtering capabilities.NamesCharacteristicsmajor(ip) Domestic and Industrial UsesACETATELuxurious feel and appearance broad range of colors and lustersExcellent drapability and softnessRela tively fast-dryingShrink-, moth-, and mildew-resistant uniform Blouses, dresses, and buns garments. intimate apparel, linings, shirts, slacks, sportswear.Fabrics Brocade, crepe, double knits, faille, create from raw stuff jerseys, lace, satin, taffeta, tricot. base of operations FurnishingsDraperies, upholstery.OtherCigarette filters, fiberfill for pillows, quilted products acrylic paintSoft and warmWool-likeRetains shapeResilientQuick-dryingResistant to moths, sunlight, oil and chemicalsApparelDresses, infant wear, knitted garments, ski wear, socks, sportswear, sweaters.FabricsFleece and pile fabrics, face fabrics in bonded fabrics, simulated furs, jerseys.Home FurnishingsBlankets. carpets, draperies, upholstery.OtherAuto tops, awnings, hand-knitting and craft yarns, industrial and geotextile fabrics.ARAMIDDoes not meltHighly flame-resistantHigh strengthHigh resistance to protractMaintains its shape and form at high temperaturesHot-gas filtration fabrics, protective clothing, m ilitary helmets, protective vests, structural composites for aircraft and boats, sailcloth, tires, ropes and cables, mechanical rubber goods, marine and sporting goods.MELAMINE washrag and dyeableFlame resistance and low thermal conductivityHigh heat dimensional stabilityProcess able on standard textile equipmentFire Blocking FabricsAircraft seating, fire blockers for upholstered furniture in high-risk occupancies (e.g., to chance upon California TB 133 requirements)Protective ClothingFirefightersturnout gear, insulating thermal liners, knit hoods, liquified metal splash apparel.NAMESCHARACTERSTICSUSESNYLONExceptionally strongSuppleAbrasion-resistant promisingEasy to washResists damage from oil and many chemicalsResilient embarrassed in moisture absorbencyApparelBlouses, dresses, foundation garments, hosiery, lingerie and underwear, raincoats, ski and century apparel, suits, windbreakers.Home Furnishings Bedspreads, carpets, draperies, curtains, upholstery.Other Air hoses, convey or and seat belts, parachutes, racket strings, ropes and nets, sleeping bags, tarpaulins, tents, thread, tire cord, geotextiles.OLEFINUnique wicking properties that make it very easinessableAbrasion-resistantQuick-dryingResistant to deterioration from chemicals, mildew, perspiration, rot, and weatherSensitive to heatSoil resistant fond very lightweightExcellent colorfastnessApparel Pantyhose, underwear, knitted sports shirts, mens half hose, mens knitted sportswear, sweaters.Home FurnishingsCarpet and carpet backing, slipcovers, upholstery.OtherDye nets, filter fabrics, wash and sandbags, geotextiles, automotive interiors, cordage, doll hair, industrial sewing thread.POLYESTERStrongResistant to stretch and shrinkingResistant to most chemicalsQuick-dryingCrisp and resilient when wet or dryWrinkle- and abrasion-resistantRetains heat-set pleats and creasesEasy to washApparelBlouses, shirts, career apparel, childrens wear, dresses, half hose, insulated garments, ties, lingerie and un derwear, permanent press garments, slacks, suits.Home FurnishingsCarpets, curtains, draperies, sheets and pillow cases.OtherFiberfill for various products, fire hose, power belting, ropes and nets, tire cord, sail, V-belts.PBIHighly flame resistantOutstanding comfort factor combined with thermal and chemical stability propertiesWill not burn or meltLow shrinkage, when exposed to flame.Suitable for high-performance protective apparel such as firemens turnout coats, astronaut space suits and applications where fire resistance is important.NAMESCHARACTERISTICSUSESRAYONHighly absorbentSoft and homyEasy to dyeVersatileGood drapabilityApparel Blouses, coats, dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings, millinery. rainwear, slacks, sports shirts, sportswear, suits, ties, work clothes.Home FurnishingsBedspreads, blankets, carpets, curtains, draperies, sheets, slipcovers, tablecloths, upholstery.Other Industrial products, medical, surgical products, non-woven products, tire cord.SPANDEXCan be stret ched 500 percent without breakingCan be stretched repeatedly and recover original lengthLight-weightStronger and more durable than rubberResistant to body oilsArticles (where stretch is desired)Athletic apparel, bathing suits, delicate laces, foundation garments, golf jackets, ski pants, slacks, complement and surgical hose.Production Methods-Textile Manufacturing-The manufacture of textiles is one of the oldest of human technologies. In order to make textiles, the first requirement is a source of fibre from which a yarn can be made, primarily by spinning. (Both fibre and fiber are used in this article.) The yarn is processed by knitting or weaving, which turns yarn into cloth. The machine used for weaving is the loom. For decoration, the process of colouring yarn or the finished material is dyeing. For more training of the various steps, see textile manufacturing..Typical textile processing includes 4 stagesyarn formation,fabric formation,wet processing, andfabrication.The three main types of fibers includenatural vegetable fibers (such as cotton, linen, jute and hemp),man-made fibers (those made artificially, but from natural raw materials such as rayon, acetate, Modal, cupro, and the more recently developed Lyocell),synthetic fibers (a subset of man-made fibers, which are based on synthetic chemicals rather than arising from natural chemicals by a purely physical process) and protein based fi1. grant processing yarn formationWoolFlax2. Machine Processing yarn formation cotton fiberCotton GinPickingCardingCombining the SliversSpinningPlyingYuccaLeaf to Rolag3. Hand Processing- Fabric FormationKnittingCrochetLaceWeaving lookProcess4HYPERLINK http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturingMachine_processing_fabric_formationMachine_processing_fabric_formation HYPERLINK http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturingMachine_processing_fabric_formationMachine_processing_fabric_formationMachine processing fabric formationKnittingLaceWeaving5HYPERLINK http// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturingDecorationDecoration HYPERLINK http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturingDecorationDecorationDecorationDyeing5.2HYPERLINK http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturingBleachingBleaching HYPERLINK http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturingBleachingBleachingBleaching5.3HYPERLINK http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturing embroideryEmbroidery HYPERLINK http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textile_manufacturingEmbroideryEmbroideryEmbroideryTextile depressionDesign for a hand woodblock printed textile, showing the complexity of the blocks used to make repeating patterns. Evenlode by William Morris, 1883.Evenlode block-printed fabric.Textile printing is the process of applying colour to fabric in definite patterns or designs. In flop printed fabrics the colour is bonded with the fiber, so as to resist washing and friction. Textile printing is related to dyeing but, whereas in dyeing proper the whole fabric is uniformly covered with one colour, in printing one or more colours are applied to it in certain parts only, and in sharply defined patterns.In printing, wooden blocks, stencils, engraved plates, rollers, or silkscreens are used to place colours on the fabric. Colourants used in printing contain dyes thickened to prevent the colour from spreading by capillary attraction beyond the limits of the pattern or design.Traditional textile printing techniques may be broadly categorised into four styles show printing, in which colourants containing dyes, thickeners, and the mordants or substances necessary for fixing the colour on the cloth are printed in the desired pattern.The printing of a mordant in the desired pattern prior to dyeing cloth the color adheres only where the mordant was printed.Resist dyeing, in which a wax or other substance is printed onto fabric which is subsequently dyed. The waxed areas do not consent the dye, leaving uncoloured patterns against a coloured ground.Discharge printing, in which a bleaching agent is printed onto previously dyed fabrics to remove some or all of the colour.Resist and discharge techniques were particularly fashionable in the 19th century, as were combination techniques in which indigo resist was used to create sorry backgrounds prior to block-printing of other colours. Most modern industrialised printing uses maneuver printing techniques.Textile recyclingTextile recycling is the method of reusing or reprocessing used clothing, fibrous material and clothing scraps from the manufacturing process.Textiles in municipal solid waste are found mainly in cast out clothing, although other sources include furniture, carpets, tires, footwear, and nondurable goods such as sheets and towels.Textiles and leather recycling categoriesCotton RecyclingWool RecyclingBurlap, Jute and Sisal RecyclingPolyurethane scintillate RecyclingPolyester and Polyester Fiber RecyclingNylon and Nylon Fiber RecyclingOther Synthetic Fiber RecyclingCarpet RecyclingRags and WipersUsed and Recycled BagsUsed ClothingUsed FootwearLeather RecyclingTextile Recycling consumptionStatisticsYearPercent of textile recovered in the U.S.19602.8%19806.3%200515.3%Textile preservationTextile preservation refers to the processes by which textiles are cared for and maintained to be keep from future damage. The field falls under the category of art preservation as well as library preservation, depending on the type of collection. In this case, the concept of textile preservation applies to a wide range of artifacts, including tapestries, carpets, quilts, clothing, flags and curtains, as well as objects which contain textiles, such as upholstered furniture, dolls, and accessories such as fans, parasols, gloves and hats or bonnets. Many of these artifacts require specialized care, often by a professional conservator.TreatmentsEmbroidered skirts by the Alfaro-Nez family of Cochas, Peru, usingtraditional Peruvian embroidery production methods.Textiles are often dyed, with fabrics available in almost every colour. benighted designs in textiles can be created byweaving together fibres of different colours ,adding coloured stitches to finished fabric (embroidery),creating patterns by resist dyeing methods,tying off areas of cloth and dyeing the rest (tie-dye), or outline wax designs on cloth and dyeing in between them (batik), orusing various printing processes on finished fabric.Woodblock printing, still used in India and elsewhere today, is the oldest of these dating back to at least 220CE in China.Textiles are also sometimes bleached. In this process, the original colour of the textile is removed by chemicals or exposure to sunlight, turning the textile sentinel or white.Textiles are sometimes finished by chemical processes to reassign their characteristics more than recently, nanomaterials research has led to additional advancements, with companies such as Nano-Tex and NanoHorizons maturation permanent treatments based on metallic nanopart icles for making textiles more resistant to things such as water, stains, wrinkles, and pathogens such as bacteria and fungi.Fabric misgivingAdmittedly, laundry is not a beloved chore. The trick is to make clothes care fast and efficient, yet thorough. Poor care shortens the lifespan of apparel. biting corners in the laundry room only means spending more time in the dressing room, which wastes both time and money.Science Delivers Smarter Washers and DryersConsumers desire a lot of performance from their appliances. They deficiency the best possible clothing care in the least amount of time.Some people want precise control over each load,college students just want to battalion as much into each load and get the chore through quickly.Engineering advancements have reduced energy and water consumption while improving clothing care from washers and dryers. CCRC studies emerging equipment technologies to evaluate their impact on fabric care and wash chemistries.Using a variety of in struments, everywhere by can determine what kind of finish was used on a fabric, how much was applied, the fiber content of a fabric, and the effects that these and any number of other factors might have had on a sample. More often than not, Over by can offer specific reasons for a diversity of problems.UsesTextiles have an assortment of uses,the most common of which are for clothing and containers such as bags and baskets.In the household, they are used in carpeting, upholstered furnishings, windowpane shades, towels, covering for tables, beds, and other flat surfaces, and in art.In the workplace, they are used in industrial and scientific processes such as filtering.Miscellaneous uses include flags, backpacks, tents, nets, cleaning devices, such as handkerchiefs transportation devices such as balloons, kites, sails, and parachutes fortify in composite materials such as fibre glass and industrial geotextiles, and smaller cloths are used in washing by soaping up the cloth and wash ing with it rather than using just soap.Textiles used for industrial purposes, and chosen for characteristics other than their appearance, are commonly referred to as technical textiles. practiced textiles includetextile structures for automotive applications,medical textiles (e.g. implants),geotextiles (reinforcement of embankments),a